Development and evaluation of smartphone-based ITS applications for vehicular networks

[ES] Una de las áreas de investigación que está recibiendo más atención recientemente es la de vehículos autónomos. Los investigadores están en este momento centrados en el tercer de los cinco niveles de autonomía, los cuales son: asistencia en la conducción, automatización parcial, automatización condicional, alta automatización y automatización completa. A pesar de los rápidos progresos que están habiendo en este campo, la adopción de estas soluciones llevará tiempo no sólo debido a cuestiones legales, sino también por el hecho de que los avances tecnológicos se enfrentan a un lento respaldo por parte de los fabricantes. Además, la baja tasa de renovación de vehículos de carretera, dificulta el despliegue de tecnologías innovadoras, como es el caso de la red vehicular. Ocho años después de la introducción de la norma 802.11p para la comunicación vehicular del Instituto de Ingenieros Eléctricos y Electrónicos (IIEE), los vehículos que se usan a diario todavía carecen de la capacidad de comunicarse entre sí. Este hecho impide el uso de las muchas aplicaciones de seguridad del Sistema de Inteligencia de Transporte (SIT) que aprovecha la red vehicular para el intercambio de datos. La forma obvia de manejar este problema es poner las tecnologías disponibles a la disposición de los usuarios comunes para desarrollar soluciones que se puedan implementar fácilmente y, además, económicas. Por esta razón, trasladamos nuestra atención a los dispositivos inteligentes, especialmente a los teléfonos inteligentes, los cuales han recorrido un largo camino desde la primera introducción de teléfonos móviles a finales del siglo XX. Hoy en día casi todos llevan uno en su bolsillo a donde sea que vayan, permitiéndoles no sólo hacer llamadas, sino también medir y controlar diferentes parámetros con la ayuda de los muchos sensores integrados que están disponibles para estos dispositivos compactos pero potentes. Nuestro objetivo es estudiar los efectos de la integración de los teléfonos inteligentes a la red vehicular para desarrollar aplicaciones de seguridad del SIT. La elección de los teléfonos inteligentes aquí no solo está justificada por su amplia disponibilidad y uso, sino también porque están evolucionando hacia terminales de alto rendimiento con microprocesadores de múltiples núcleos cargados dotados de un grupo suficientemente diverso de sensores. En esta tesis proponemos tres diferentes aplicaciones de seguridad SIT para teléfonos inteligentes, diseñados para aprovechar el entorno de red vehicular: una aplicación de generación de advertencia llamada Messiah que alerta a los conductores de la presencia de vehículos de emergencia en las cercanías; una aplicación de Advertencia de Colisión Frontal (ACF) que advierte a los conductores si no se mantiene la distancia de seguridad mínima entre el vehículo que va delante y el que lo sigue; y, por último, una aplicación que tiene como objetivo ayudar a los conductores con asistencia visual durante el adelantamiento, llamada EYES. Todas estas aplicaciones han sido desarrolladas para la plataforma Android, y dependen de la transmisión de datos entre vehículos. Dado que los vehículos que utilizamos día a día no admiten la posibilidad de comunicarse entre sí, también diseñamos GRCBox, que es una unidad integrada de bajo coste que permite la comunicación del Vehículo a Todo (V2X). A partir de nuestro estudio de aplicaciones para dispositivos móviles diseñados para redes vehiculares, descubrimos que el uso de teléfonos inteligentes proporciona una nueva dirección para la investigación relacionada con SIT y redes vehiculares al permitir la adopción rápida de las soluciones existentes, donde los usuarios pueden descargar y usar las aplicaciones con sólo un clic a un botón. Al mismo tiempo, la portabilidad y compacidad de los dispositivos los hace limitados en términos de velocidad, potencia de procesamiento y precisi[CA] Una de les àrees d'investigació que està rebent més atenció recentment és la de vehicles autònoms. Els investigadores estan en este moment centrats en el tercer dels cinc nivells d'autonomia, els quals són: assistència en la conducció, automatització parcial, automatització condicional, alta automatització i automatització completa. Malgrat els ràpids progressos que s'estan donant en este camp, l'adopció d'estes solucions portarà temps no sols degut a qüestions legals, sinó també pel fet que els avanços tecnològics s'enfronten a un lent recolzament per part dels fabricants. A més a més, la baixa taxa de renovació de vehicles de carretera, dificulta el desplegament de tecnologies innovadores com és el cas de la xarxa vehicular. Huit anys després de la introducció de la norma 802.11p per a la comunicació vehicular de l'Institut d'Enginyers Elèctrics i Electrònics (IEEE), els vehicles que s'utilitzen a diari encara manquen de la capacitat de comunicar-se entre sí. Este fet impedeix l'ús de les moltes aplicacions de seguretat del Sistema d'Intel·ligència de Transport (SIT) que aprofita la xarxa vehicular per a l'intercanvi de dades. La forma òbvia de tractar aquest problema és posar les tecnologies disponibles a la disposició dels usuaris comuns per a desenvolupar solucions que es puguen implementar fàcilment, còmodes d'adoptar i, a més a més, econòmiques. Per aquesta raó, traslladem la nostra atenció als dispositius intel·ligents, especialment als telèfons intel·ligents, els quals han recorregut un llarg camí des de la primera introducció de telèfons mòbils a finals del segle XX. Hui en dia quasi tots porten un en la butxaca on siga que vagen, permetent-los no sols fer cridades, sinó també mesurar i controlar diferents paràmetres amb l'ajuda dels molts sensors integrats que estan disponibles per a estos dispositius compactes però potents. El nostre objectiu és estudiar els efectes de la integració dels telèfons intel·ligents a la xarxa vehicular per a desenvolupar aplicacions de seguretat del SIT. L'elecció dels telèfons intel·ligents ací no està sols justificada per la seua àmplia disponibilitat i ús, sinó també perquè estan evolucionant cap a terminals d'alt rendiment amb microprocessadors de múltiples nuclis dotats amb un grup suficientment divers de sensors. En esta tesi proposem tres diferents aplicacions de seguretat SIT per a telèfons intel·ligents, dissenyats per a aprofitar l'entorn de xarxa vehicular: una aplicació de generació d'advertència anomenada Messiah que alerta els conductors de la presència de vehicles d'emergència en les proximitats; una aplicació Advertència de Col·lisió Frontal (ACF) que adverteix els conductors si no mantenen la distància de seguretat mínima entre el vehicle que va davant i el que el segueix; i, per últim, una aplicació que té com objectiu ajudar els conductors amb assistència visual durant l'avançament, anomenat EYES. Totes aquestes aplicacions han sigut desenvolupades per a la plataforma Android, i depenen de la transmissió de dades entre vehicles. Donat que els vehicles que utilitzem a diari no admeten la possibilitat de comunicar-se entre sí, també dissenyem GRCBox, que és una unitat integrada de baix cost que permet la comunicació de Vechicle a Tot (V2X). A partir del nostre estudi d'aplicacions per a dispositius mòbils dissenyats per a xarxes vehiculars, descobrim que l'ús de telèfons intel·ligents proporciona una nova direcció per a la investigació relacionada amb SIT i xarxes vehiculars al permetre l'adopció ràpida de les solucions existents, on els usuaris poden descarregar i utilitzar les aplicacions amb un sol clic a un botó. Però al mateix temps, la portabilitat i la compacitat dels dispositius els fa limitats en termes de velocitat, potència de processament i precisió del sensor integrat, cosa que afecta al rendiment de les aplicacions.[EN] One of the research areas that is receiving a lot of attention recently is autonomous vehicles. Researchers are currently focused on the third level of autonomy out of the five levels, which are: drive assistance, partial automation, conditional automation, high automation, and full automation. Even though rapid progress is being made in this field, the adoption of these solutions will take time not only due to legal issues, but also due to the fact that technological improvements face slow endorsement by manufacturers. Also, the slow renewal rate of vehicles on road hinders the deployment of novel technologies, as is the case of Vehicular Networks (VNs). Eight years after the introduction of the IEEE 802.11p standard for vehicular communication, vehicles used on a daily basis still lack the capability of communicating with one other. This fact impedes the use of the many ITS safety applications that take advantage of VNs for data exchange. The obvious way to handle this problem is to use the available technologies at the disposal of common users to develop solutions that are easily deployable, effortless to adopt, and moreover, cost effective. For this reason we shift our attention to smart devices, specially smartphones, which have come a long way since the first introduction of mobile phones in the late 20th century. Nowadays, nearly everyone carries one in their pocket anywhere they go, allowing them to not only make calls, but also to measure and monitor different parameters with the help of the many on-board sensors that are available to these compact yet powerful devices. Our objective is to study the effects of integrating smartphones to vehicular networks, to develop ITS safety applications. The choice of smartphones here is not only justified by their wide availability and use, but also because they are evolving towards high performance terminals with multi-core microprocessors packed with a sufficiently diverse group of sensors. In this thesis we propose three different ITS safety applications for smartphones, designed to take advantage of the vehicular network environment: a warning generation application called Messiah that alerts drivers of the presence of emergency vehicles in close proximity; a FCW application which warns drivers if a minimum safe distance is not maintained between the vehicle ahead and the one following it; and lastly an application that aims to aid drivers with visual assistance while overtaking, named EYES. All these applications have been developed for the Android platform, and are dependent on the data transmission among vehicles. Since vehicles we use on a day to day basis still do not accommodate the possibility to communicate with one another, we also designed the GRCBox, which is a low cost on-board unit that supports V2X communication. From our study of applications for mobile devices designed for VNs, we found that the use of smartphones provides a new direction to research related to ITS and VNs by allowing a quick adoption of the existing solutions, where users are able to download and use applications just by one click of a button. But at the same time, the portability and compactness of the devices makes them limited in terms of speed, processing power, and accuracy of the on-board sensor, thus affecting the performance of the applications. In our case, the simpler Messiah application performed very well, while the EYES application that is dependent on GPS data, and the FCW application which required heavy processing and use of the camera due to its dependence on plate recognition, were affected by the hardware limitations of the smartphones.Patra, S. (2019). Development and evaluation of smartphone-based ITS applications for vehicular networks [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/124058TESI

Performance tuning of a smartphone-based overtaking assistant

ITS solutions suffer from the slow pace of adoption by manufacturers despite the interest shown by both consumers and industry. Our goal is to develop ITS applications using already available technologies to make them affordable, quick to deploy, and easy to adopt. In this paper we introduce EYES, an overtaking assistance solution that provides drivers with a real-time video feed from the vehicle located just in front. Our application thus provides a better view of the road ahead, and of any vehicles travelling in the opposite direction, being especially useful when the front view of the driver is blocked by large vehicles. We evaluated our application using the MJPEG video encoding format, and have determined the most effective resolution and JPEG quality choice for our case. Experimental results from the tests performed with the application in both indoor and outdoor scenarios, allow us to be optimistic about the effectiveness and applicability of smartphones in providing overtaking assistance based on video streaming in vehicular networks

Determining the relative position of vehicles considering bidirectional traffic scenarios in VANETS

Researchers pertaining to both academia and industry have shown strong interest in developing and improving the existing critical ITS solutions. In some of the existing solutions, specially the ones that aim at providing context aware services, the knowledge of relative positioning of one node by other nodes becomes crucial. In this paper we explore, apart from the conventional use of GPS data, the applicability of image processing to aid in determining the relative positions of nodes in a vehicular network. Experiments conducted show that both the use of location information and image processing works well and can be deployed depending on the requirement of the application. Our experiments show that the results that used location information were affected by GPS errors, while the use of image processing, although producing more accurate results, require significantly more processing power

Messiah: An ITS drive safety application

This article describes a novel safety application based on the open source navigation software OsmAnd, which runs on the Android platform. The application offers vehicles with "smart navigation", and maintains a network of the vehicles that use our application. The process of network creation and maintenance is important as our application enables vehicles to communicate with one another to exchange useful information. The main function of the application is to inform vehicles of relevant vehicles approaching, termed as "administrative vehicles" in this article, and include ambulances, police cars and fire brigades. Based on the received information, our application notifies the driver, who can now take navigation decisions based on it. While developing the application, problems were found when attempting to create an Ad-hoc network. A solution to the problem of managing the Ad-hoc network has been proposed and is under development

A novel on-board Unit to accelerate the penetration of ITS services

In-vehicle connectivity has experienced a big expansion in recent years. Car manufacturers have mainly proposed OBU-based solutions, but these solutions do not take full advantage of the opportunities of inter-vehicle peer-to-peer communications. In this paper we introduce GRCBox, a novel architecture that allows OEM user-devices to directly communicate when located in neighboring vehicles. In this paper we also describe EYES, an application we developed to illustrate the type of novel applications that can be implemented on top of the GRCBox. EYES is an ITS overtaking assistance system that provides the driver with real-time video fed from the vehicle located in front. Finally, we evaluated the GRCbox and the EYES application and showed that, for device-to-device communication, the performance of the GRCBox architecture is comparable to an infrastructure network, introducing a negligible impact

EYES : a novel overtaking assistance system for vehicular networks

Developments in the ITS area are received with great expectation by both consumers and industry. Despite their huge potential benefits, ITS solutions suffer from the slow pace of adoption by manufacturers. In this paper we propose EYES, an ITS system that aims at helping drivers in overtaking. The system autonomously creates a network of the devices running EYES, and provides drivers with a video feed from the vehicle located just ahead, thus presenting a better view of any vehicles coming from the opposite direction and the road ahead. This is specially useful when the front view of the driver is blocked by large vehicles, and thus the decision whether to overtake can be taken based on the visuals provided by the application. We have validated EYES, the proposed overtaking assistance system, in both indoor and realistic scenarios involving vehicular network, and preliminary results allow being optimistic about its effectiveness and applicability

Leveraging a Publish/Subscribe Fog System to Provide Collision Warnings in Vehicular Networks

[EN] Fog computing, an extension of the Cloud Computing paradigm where routers themselves may provide the virtualisation infrastructure, aims at achieving fluidity when distributing in-network functions, in addition to allowing fast and scalable processing, and exchange of information. In this paper we present a fog computing architecture based on a content island which interconnects sets of things to exchange and process data among themselves or with other content islands. We then present a use case that focuses on a smartphone-based forward collision warning application for a connected vehicle scenario. This application makes use of the optical sensor of smartphones to estimate the distance between the device itself and other vehicles in its field of view. The vehicle travelling directly ahead is identified relying on the information from the GPS, camera, and inter-island communication. Warnings are generated at both content islands, if the driver does not maintain a predefined safe distance towards the vehicle ahead. Experiments performed with the application show that with the developed method, we are able to estimate the distance between vehicles, and the inter-island communication has a very low overhead, resulting in improved performance. On comparing our proposed solution based on edge/fog computing with a cloud-based api, it was observed that our solution outperformed the cloud-based api, thus making us optimistic of the utility of the proposed architectureThis work was partially funding by the Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades, Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad, Proyectos I+D+I 2018 , Spain, under Grant RTI2018-096384-B-I00Patra, S.; Manzoni, P.; Tavares De Araujo Cesariny Calafate, CM.; Zamora-Mero, WJ.; Cano, J. (2019). Leveraging a Publish/Subscribe Fog System to Provide Collision Warnings in Vehicular Networks. Sensors. 19(18):1-22. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19183852S1221918Vaquero, L. M., & Rodero-Merino, L. (2014). Finding your Way in the Fog. ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, 44(5), 27-32. doi:10.1145/2677046.2677052MQTT Version 3.1.1 http://docs.oasis-open.org/mqtt/mqtt/v3.1.1/os/mqtt-v3.1.1-os.docSultana, T., & Wahid, K. A. (2019). Choice of Application Layer Protocols for Next Generation Video Surveillance Using Internet of Video Things. IEEE Access, 7, 41607-41624. doi:10.1109/access.2019.2907525Mehmood, F., Ullah, I., Ahmad, S., & Kim, D. (2019). Object detection mechanism based on deep learning algorithm using embedded IoT devices for smart home appliances control in CoT. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing. doi:10.1007/s12652-019-01272-8https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2616https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7252Volvo Official Website https://www.volvocars.com/Chang, B. R., Tsai, H. F., & Young, C.-P. (2010). Intelligent data fusion system for predicting vehicle collision warning using vision/GPS sensing. Expert Systems with Applications, 37(3), 2439-2450. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2009.07.036Tan, H.-S., & Huang, J. (2006). DGPS-Based Vehicle-to-Vehicle Cooperative Collision Warning: Engineering Feasibility Viewpoints. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 7(4), 415-428. doi:10.1109/tits.2006.883938Gelernter, D. (1985). Generative communication in Linda. ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems, 7(1), 80-112. doi:10.1145/2363.2433Raspberry Pi Official Website https://www.raspberrypi.org/https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc768Wallace, G. K. (1991). The JPEG still picture compression standard. Communications of the ACM, 34(4), 30-44. doi:10.1145/103085.103089Sauvola, J., & Pietikäinen, M. (2000). Adaptive document image binarization. Pattern Recognition, 33(2), 225-236. doi:10.1016/s0031-3203(99)00055-2Road Safety Authority of Ireland Suggest the Use of Two Second Rule http://www.rotr.ie/Rules_of_the_road.pdfOpenALPR Cloud-API Website https://www.openalpr.com/cloud-api.htmlPatra, S., Calafate, C. T., Cano, J.-C., & Manzoni, P. (2015). An ITS solution providing real-time visual overtaking assistance using smartphones. 2015 IEEE 40th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN). doi:10.1109/lcn.2015.736632

An ITS solution providing real-time visual overtaking assistance using smartphones

© 2015 IEEE. Personal use of this material is permitted. Permission from IEEE must be obtained for all other uses, in any current or future media, including reprinting/republishing this material for advertising or promotional purposes, creating new collective works, for resale or redistribution to servers or lists, or reuse of any copyrighted component of this work in other works.ITS solutions suffer from the slow pace of adoption by manufacturers despite the interest shown by both consumers and industry. Our goal is to develop ITS applications using already available technologies to make them affordable, quick to deploy, and easy to adopt. In this paper we introduce an ITS system for overtaking assistance that provides drivers with a real-time video feed from the vehicle located just in front. This provides a better view of the road ahead, and of any vehicles travelling in the opposite direction, being especially useful when the front view of the driver is blocked by large vehicles. We evaluated our application using H.264 and MJPEG video encoding formats, and determined the most effective codec choice for our case. Experimental results allow us to be optimistic about the effectiveness and applicability of smartphones in providing overtaking assistance based on video streaming in vehicular networks.This work was partially supported by the European Commission under Svagata.eu, the Erasmus Mundus Programme, Action 2 (EMA2) and the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad, Proyectos I+D+I 2014, Spain, under Grant TEC2014-52690-R.Patra, S.; Tavares De Araujo Cesariny Calafate, CM.; Cano Escribá, JC.; Manzoni, P. (2015). An ITS solution providing real-time visual overtaking assistance using smartphones. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/LCN.2015.7366320

Integration of vehicular network and smartphones to provide real-time visual assistance during overtaking

[EN] The Intelligent Transportation Systems area has experienced great developments in the recent past, although suffering from slow adoption ratios thus depriving consumers of many interesting and innovative applications. The only solution to this problem is to develop Intelligent Transportation Systems solutions using the already available technologies that are within the grasp of the common people, to make them cost-effective, quick to deploy and easy to adopt. We have therefore developed an affordable Intelligent Transportation Systems that make use of standard smartphones to assist drivers when overtaking. The system autonomously creates a network among the close-by vehicles and provides drivers with a real-time video feed from the one located just ahead. Our system seamlessly offers a better view of the road, and of any vehicle travelling in the opposite direction, being especially useful when the front view of the driver is blocked by large vehicles. We have validated our overtaking assistance system, in both laboratory environment and realistic scenarios. The laboratory tests involved choosing the most effective video codec between MJPEG and H.264, for providing real-time video streaming. Then, using the chosen codec, we performed the outdoor tests to further tune our application to maximise performance. The preliminary results from our experiments allow being optimistic about the effectiveness and applicability of the proposed system.The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was partially supported by the Special Research Fund – funding for joint doctorates of the Ghent University with scholarship code 01SF3316, and the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Programa Estatal de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad, Proyectos I+D+I 2014, Spain, under grant TEC2014-52690-R.Patra, S.; Tavares De Araujo Cesariny Calafate, CM.; Cano, J.; Veelaert, P.; Philips, W. (2017). Integration of vehicular network and smartphones to provide real-time visual assistance during overtaking. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks (Online). 13(12):1-17. doi:10.1177/1550147717748114S117131

Detecting Vehicles' Relative Position on Two-Lane Highways Through a Smartphone-Based Video Overtaking Aid Application

[EN] In this paper we present a smartphone-based real-time video overtaking architecture for vehicular networks. The developed application aims to prevent head-on collisions that might occur due to attempts to overtake when the view of the driver is obstructed by the presence of a larger vehicle ahead. Under such conditions, the driver does not have a clear view of the road ahead and of any vehicles that might be approaching from the opposite direction, resulting in a high probability of accident occurrence. Our application relies on the use of a dashboard-mounted smartphone with the back camera facing the windshield, and having the screen towards the driver. A video is streamed from the vehicle ahead to the vehicle behind automatically, where it is displayed so that the driver can decide if it is safe to overtake. One of the major challenges is the way to pick the right video source and destination among vehicles in close proximity, depending on their relative position on the road. For this purpose, we have focused on two different methods: one relying solely on GPS data, and the other involving the use of the camera and vehicle heading information. Our experiments show that the faster method, using just the location information, is prone to errors due to GPS inaccuracies. A second method that depends on data fusion from the optical sensor and GPS, although accurate over short distances, becomes more computationally intensive, and its performance significantly depends on the quality of the camera.This work was partially funding by the "Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion y Universidades, Programa Estatal de Investigacion, Desarrollo e Innovacion Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad, Proyectos I+D+I 2018", Spain, under Grant RTI2018-096384-B-I00.Patra, S.; Van Hamme, D.; Veelaert, P.; Tavares De Araujo Cesariny Calafate, CM.; Cano, J.; Manzoni, P.; Zamora, W. (2020). 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